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, have also proposed a similar mechanism for Lactobacillus species ( Studies With the Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis Animal Model Concerning the role of probiotic bacteria on disease progression, Pan et al

7a, 11b, 12a,c and 14a were created using BioRender ( Ethics declarations Competing interests J.M.M

The LPS is a surface membrane component of gram-negative bacteria and is recognized by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on the membranes of intestinal epithelial cells, which stimulates components of the immune system [67]

By integrating evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies, we evaluate the translational potential of metformins pleiotropic actions across specific cardiac pathologies and outline key directions for future research and therapeutic innovation