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Biologics [e.g., TNF- inhibitors (etanercept), IL-6R blockers (tocilizumab)]: Effective in 60 - 70% of patients but incur prohibitive costs ($20,000 - 50,000 annually), limiting accessibility (only 10 - 20% treated in low-resource settings) (5, 6)

A total of 20 primary sources were selected based on relevance, methodological quality, and contribution to understanding peptide mechanisms and clinical outcomes in aging populations

GHK-Cus documented NGF stimulation appears to sit within its broader gene expression modulation signature rather than representing a direct receptor interaction, which is mechanistically coherent with the transcriptomic reactivation data showing GHK-Cu shifting aging gene expression profiles toward younger patterns (PMID: 25904764)

As a result, a total of 380 changed proteins (Additional file 3: Table S3) were detected between the control and SDS-treated cells, of which 349 and 41 were found to be upregulated and downregulated, respectively