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Figure 2 2.1 Modulation of innate immune cell populations by bile acids 2.1.1 Macrophages: polarization, phagocytosis, and cytokine production Macrophages are key targets of bile acids (BAs) in the TIME, given their immune plasticity and roles in inflammation and tumor progression ( Macrophage BA responses are mediated by receptors such as farnesoid X receptor (FXR), Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5), vitamin D receptor (VDR), liver X receptor alpha (LXR), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR) ( However, BA effects are context-dependent

D.BassettP.AbbaraA.et al (2023a)

Additionally, metabolic interventions such as caloric restriction mimetics (e.g., spermidine, -ketoglutarate, ergothioneine) enhance mitochondrial function, activate autophagy, and reprogram energy metabolism, demonstrating lifespan extension and healthspan improvement in preclinical models

J Toxicol Environ Health A | DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1357366 Alachkar, A